2024-03-27

Signed-off-by: vanten-s <vanten-s@vanten-s.com>

.cargo/config.toml

@@ -1,2 +0,0 @@
-[unstable]
-bindeps = true

.gitignore

@@ -1 +1,6 @@
-/target
+target
+/kernel/Cargo.lock
+/build
+/binutils
+/gcc
+/opt

Makefile

@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+.PHONY: all build test clean
+
+all: build
+
+build:
+	rm -rf build
+	mkdir build
+	i686-elf-as -o build/boot.o boot.s
+	cd kernel; cargo build
+	cp kernel/target/i686-unknown-bare/debug/kernel.elf build/geos.bin
+	mkdir -p build/isodir/boot/grub
+	cp build/geos.bin build/isodir/boot/geos.bin
+	cp grub.cfg build/isodir/boot/grub/grub.cfg
+	grub-mkrescue -o build/geos.iso build/isodir
+
+test: build
+	qemu-system-i386 -cdrom build/geos.iso
+
+clean:
+	rm -rf kernel/target
+	rm -rf build
+

boot.s

@@ -0,0 +1,109 @@
+/* Declare constants for the multiboot header. */
+.set ALIGN,    1<<0             /* align loaded modules on page boundaries */
+.set MEMINFO,  1<<1             /* provide memory map */
+.set FLAGS,    ALIGN | MEMINFO  /* this is the Multiboot 'flag' field */
+.set MAGIC,    0x1BADB002       /* 'magic number' lets bootloader find the header */
+.set CHECKSUM, -(MAGIC + FLAGS) /* checksum of above, to prove we are multiboot */
+
+/* 
+Declare a multiboot header that marks the program as a kernel. These are magic
+values that are documented in the multiboot standard. The bootloader will
+search for this signature in the first 8 KiB of the kernel file, aligned at a
+32-bit boundary. The signature is in its own section so the header can be
+forced to be within the first 8 KiB of the kernel file.
+*/
+.section .multiboot
+.align 4
+.long MAGIC
+.long FLAGS
+.long CHECKSUM
+
+/*
+The multiboot standard does not define the value of the stack pointer register
+(esp) and it is up to the kernel to provide a stack. This allocates room for a
+small stack by creating a symbol at the bottom of it, then allocating 16384
+bytes for it, and finally creating a symbol at the top. The stack grows
+downwards on x86. The stack is in its own section so it can be marked nobits,
+which means the kernel file is smaller because it does not contain an
+uninitialized stack. The stack on x86 must be 16-byte aligned according to the
+System V ABI standard and de-facto extensions. The compiler will assume the
+stack is properly aligned and failure to align the stack will result in
+undefined behavior.
+*/
+.section .bss
+.align 16
+stack_bottom:
+.skip 16384 # 16 KiB
+stack_top:
+
+/*
+The linker script specifies _start as the entry point to the kernel and the
+bootloader will jump to this position once the kernel has been loaded. It
+doesn't make sense to return from this function as the bootloader is gone.
+*/
+.section .text
+.global _start
+.type _start, @function
+_start:
+	/*
+	The bootloader has loaded us into 32-bit protected mode on a x86
+	machine. Interrupts are disabled. Paging is disabled. The processor
+	state is as defined in the multiboot standard. The kernel has full
+	control of the CPU. The kernel can only make use of hardware features
+	and any code it provides as part of itself. There's no printf
+	function, unless the kernel provides its own <stdio.h> header and a
+	printf implementation. There are no security restrictions, no
+	safeguards, no debugging mechanisms, only what the kernel provides
+	itself. It has absolute and complete power over the
+	machine.
+	*/
+
+	/*
+	To set up a stack, we set the esp register to point to the top of the
+	stack (as it grows downwards on x86 systems). This is necessarily done
+	in assembly as languages such as C cannot function without a stack.
+	*/
+	mov $stack_top, %esp
+
+	/*
+	This is a good place to initialize crucial processor state before the
+	high-level kernel is entered. It's best to minimize the early
+	environment where crucial features are offline. Note that the
+	processor is not fully initialized yet: Features such as floating
+	point instructions and instruction set extensions are not initialized
+	yet. The GDT should be loaded here. Paging should be enabled here.
+	C++ features such as global constructors and exceptions will require
+	runtime support to work as well.
+	*/
+
+	/*
+	Enter the high-level kernel. The ABI requires the stack is 16-byte
+	aligned at the time of the call instruction (which afterwards pushes
+	the return pointer of size 4 bytes). The stack was originally 16-byte
+	aligned above and we've pushed a multiple of 16 bytes to the
+	stack since (pushed 0 bytes so far), so the alignment has thus been
+	preserved and the call is well defined.
+	*/
+	call kernel_main
+
+	/*
+	If the system has nothing more to do, put the computer into an
+	infinite loop. To do that:
+	1) Disable interrupts with cli (clear interrupt enable in eflags).
+	   They are already disabled by the bootloader, so this is not needed.
+	   Mind that you might later enable interrupts and return from
+	   kernel_main (which is sort of nonsensical to do).
+	2) Wait for the next interrupt to arrive with hlt (halt instruction).
+	   Since they are disabled, this will lock up the computer.
+	3) Jump to the hlt instruction if it ever wakes up due to a
+	   non-maskable interrupt occurring or due to system management mode.
+	*/
+	cli
+1:	hlt
+	jmp 1b
+
+/*
+Set the size of the _start symbol to the current location '.' minus its start.
+This is useful when debugging or when you implement call tracing.
+*/
+.size _start, . - _start

grub.cfg

@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+menuentry "geos" {
+	multiboot /boot/geos.bin
+}

kernel/.cargo/config.toml

@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+[build]
+target = "i686-unknown-bare.json"
+
+[unstable]
+build-std-features = ["compiler-builtins-mem"]
+build-std = ["core", "compiler_builtins"]

kernel/Cargo.toml

@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+[package]
+name = "kernel"
+version = "0.1.0"
+edition = "2021"
+
+[workspace]
+members = ["std"]
+
+[dependencies]
+std = { path = "std" }

kernel/i686-unknown-bare.json

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+{
+  "llvm-target": "i686-unknown-none",
+  "data-layout": "e-m:e-p:32:32-p270:32:32-p271:32:32-p272:64:64-i128:128-f64:32:64-f80:32-n8:16:32-S128",
+  "arch": "x86",
+  "target-endian": "little",
+  "target-pointer-width": "32",
+  "target-c-int-width": "32",
+  "os": "none",
+  "executables": true,
+  "linker-flavor": "gcc",
+  "linker": "i686-elf-gcc",
+  "panic-strategy": "abort",
+  "disable-redzone": true,
+  "features": "-sse,+soft-float",
+  "dynamic-linking": false,
+  "relocation-model": "pic",
+  "code-model": "kernel",
+  "exe-suffix": ".elf",
+  "has-rpath": false,
+  "no-default-libraries": true,
+  "position-independent-executables": false,
+  "pre-link-args": {
+    "gcc": ["-T", "../linker.ld", "-ffreestanding", "-nostdlib", "-lgcc", "../build/boot.o"]
+  }
+}

kernel/src/main.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+#![no_std]
+#![no_main]
+
+use std::println;
+
+#[no_mangle]
+pub extern "C" fn kernel_main() -> ! {
+    let a = 4;
+    println!("Hiii :3");
+    println!("{}", a);
+    loop {}
+}
+
+#[panic_handler]
+fn panic(_info: &core::panic::PanicInfo) -> ! {
+    loop {}
+}

kernel/std/Cargo.lock

@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo.
+# It is not intended for manual editing.
+version = 3
+
+[[package]]
+name = "std"
+version = "0.1.0"

kernel/std/Cargo.toml

@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+[package]
+name = "std"
+version = "0.1.0"
+edition = "2021"
+
+[dependencies]
+lazy_static = { version = "1.4.0", features = ["spin_no_std"] }
+spin = "0.9.8"

kernel/std/src/lib.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+#![no_std]
+
+pub mod vga_buffer;

kernel/std/src/vga_buffer.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,132 @@
+use core::fmt::{self, Write};
+
+use lazy_static::lazy_static;
+use spin::Mutex;
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+#[repr(u8)]
+pub enum Color {
+    Black = 0,
+    Blue = 1,
+    Green = 2,
+    Cyan = 3,
+    Red = 4,
+    Magenta = 5,
+    Brown = 6,
+    LightGray = 7,
+    DarkGray = 8,
+    LightBlue = 9,
+    LightGreen = 10,
+    LightCyan = 11,
+    LightRed = 12,
+    Pink = 13,
+    Yellow = 14,
+    White = 15,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+#[repr(transparent)]
+pub struct ColorCode(u8);
+
+impl ColorCode {
+    pub fn new(foreground: Color, background: Color) -> ColorCode {
+        ColorCode((background as u8) << 4 | (foreground as u8))
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+#[repr(C)]
+struct ScreenChar {
+    ascii_character: u8,
+    color_code: ColorCode,
+}
+
+const BUFFER_HEIGHT: usize = 25;
+const BUFFER_WIDTH: usize = 80;
+
+#[repr(transparent)]
+struct Buffer {
+    chars: [[ScreenChar; BUFFER_WIDTH]; BUFFER_HEIGHT],
+}
+
+pub struct Writer {
+    col: usize,
+    row: usize,
+    buffer: &'static mut Buffer,
+}
+
+impl Writer {
+    pub fn write_byte(&mut self, byte: u8) {
+        self.write_byte_color(byte, ColorCode::new(Color::White, Color::Black));
+    }
+
+    pub fn write_byte_color(&mut self, byte: u8, color: ColorCode) {
+        match byte {
+            b'\n' => self.new_line(),
+            byte => {
+                if self.col >= BUFFER_WIDTH {
+                    self.new_line();
+                }
+
+                let row = self.row;
+                let col = self.col;
+
+                let color_code = color;
+                self.buffer.chars[row][col] = ScreenChar {
+                    ascii_character: byte,
+                    color_code,
+                };
+                self.col += 1;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn write_string(&mut self, s: &str) {
+        self.write_string_color(s, ColorCode::new(Color::White, Color::Black));
+    }
+
+    pub fn write_string_color(&mut self, s: &str, color: ColorCode) {
+        for char in s.bytes() {
+            match char {
+                0x20..=0x7e | b'\n' => self.write_byte_color(char, color),
+                _ => self.write_byte(0xfe),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn new_line(&mut self) {
+        self.row += 1;
+        self.col = 0;
+    }
+}
+
+impl fmt::Write for Writer {
+    fn write_str(&mut self, s: &str) -> fmt::Result {
+        self.write_string(s);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+lazy_static! {
+    pub static ref WRITER: Mutex<Writer> = Mutex::new(Writer {
+        col: 0,
+        row: 0,
+        buffer: unsafe { &mut *(0xB8000 as *mut Buffer) },
+    });
+}
+
+#[doc(hidden)]
+pub fn _print(args: fmt::Arguments) {
+    WRITER.lock().write_fmt(args).unwrap()
+}
+
+#[macro_export]
+macro_rules! print {
+    ($($arg:tt)*) => ($crate::vga_buffer::_print(format_args!($($arg)*)));
+}
+
+#[macro_export]
+macro_rules! println {
+    () => ($crate::print!("\n"));
+    ($($arg:tt)*) => ($crate::print!("{}\n", format_args!($($arg)*)));
+}

linker.ld

@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+/* The bootloader will look at this image and start execution at the symbol
+   designated as the entry point. */
+ENTRY(_start)
+ 
+/* Tell where the various sections of the object files will be put in the final
+   kernel image. */
+SECTIONS
+{
+	/* It used to be universally recommended to use 1M as a start offset,
+	   as it was effectively guaranteed to be available under BIOS systems.
+	   However, UEFI has made things more complicated, and experimental data
+	   strongly suggests that 2M is a safer place to load. In 2016, a new
+	   feature was introduced to the multiboot2 spec to inform bootloaders
+	   that a kernel can be loaded anywhere within a range of addresses and
+	   will be able to relocate itself to run from such a loader-selected
+	   address, in order to give the loader freedom in selecting a span of
+	   memory which is verified to be available by the firmware, in order to
+	   work around this issue. This does not use that feature, so 2M was
+	   chosen as a safer option than the traditional 1M. */
+	. = 2M;
+ 
+	/* First put the multiboot header, as it is required to be put very early
+	   in the image or the bootloader won't recognize the file format.
+	   Next we'll put the .text section. */
+	.text BLOCK(4K) : ALIGN(4K)
+	{
+		*(.multiboot)
+		*(.text)
+	}
+ 
+	/* Read-only data. */
+	.rodata BLOCK(4K) : ALIGN(4K)
+	{
+		*(.rodata)
+	}
+ 
+	/* Read-write data (initialized) */
+	.data BLOCK(4K) : ALIGN(4K)
+	{
+		*(.data)
+	}
+ 
+	/* Read-write data (uninitialized) and stack */
+	.bss BLOCK(4K) : ALIGN(4K)
+	{
+		*(COMMON)
+		*(.bss)
+	}
+ 
+	/* The compiler may produce other sections, by default it will put them in
+	   a segment with the same name. Simply add stuff here as needed. */
+}

log/2024-03-26.md

@@ -0,0 +1,374 @@
+# Writing an OS in rust
+
+# Introduction
+I have tried multiple times to write an OS, but have always failed. Time to fail again :). I will be writing down my progress here, and maybe share it some day. I have previously used [osdev](https://osdev.org/) to learn and now I also use [OS in Rust](https://os.phil-opp.com/).
+
+# Cross-compilation
+The first step to making an OS is of course installing the correct compilers.
+
+## binutils
+Binutils is needed for linking and assembling. To install binutils I began by downloading the latest version from [sourceware](https://sourceware.org/pub/binutils/snapshots/) into the repository root directory.
+After that I ran these commands in the repository:
+```bash
+tar -xzf binutils-x.y.z.tar.xz # Extract the source code
+mv binutils-x.y.z binutils # Move source into a binutils directory
+cd binutils
+mkdir build-binutils # Create build directory
+../configure --target=i686-elf --prefix=../../opt --with-sysroot --disable-nls --disable-werror
+make # Compile
+make install # Install
+```
+
+## gcc
+Gcc is needed for eventual C code and as a frontend for the linker. To install gcc I began by downloading the source code from [mirrorservice](https://mirrorservice.org/sites/sourceware.org/pub/gcc/snapshots/) into the repository directory. After I downloaded gcc I ran these commands:
+```bash
+tar -xzf gcc-x.y.z.tar.xz # Extract the source code
+mv gcc-x.y.z gcc # Move source into a binutils directory
+cd gcc
+mkdir build-gcc # Create build directory
+../configure --target=i686-elf --prefix=../../opt --disable-nls --enable-languages=c,c++ --without-headers
+make all-gcc # Compile gcc
+make all-target-libgcc # Compile libgcc
+make install-gcc # Install gcc
+make install-target-libgcc # Install libgcc
+```
+In order to add gcc and binutils to `$PATH` I added this line to `shellHook` in `shell.nix`:
+```bash
+export PATH="$PATH:$PWD/opt/bin"
+```
+
+## rustup
+[Rustup](https://rustup.rs/) is needed to install the correct target. To make anyone able to replicate my toolchain, I used [nix](https://nixos.org). Following [this](https://nixos.wiki/wiki/Rust) tutorial, I got rustup installed. I also added
+```bash
+rustup component add rust-analyzer
+rustup component add rust-src
+```
+to `shellHook` to add the necessary components for IDEs and for compiling to custom targets.
+
+In the end, `shell.nix` looked like this:
+```nix
+{ pkgs ? import <nixpkgs> {} }:
+
+pkgs.mkShell rec {
+	buildInputs = with pkgs; [
+      clang
+      llvmPackages_17.bintools
+      rustup
+	  qemu
+      grub2
+      libisoburn
+      bison
+      flex
+      gmp
+      libmpc
+      mpfr
+      texinfo
+      isl
+    ];
+    RUSTC_VERSION = "nightly"; # Required for some experimental cargo features
+    hardeningDisable = [ "all" ]; # Required to compile gcc
+    LIBCLANG_PATH = pkgs.lib.makeLibraryPath [ pkgs.llvmPackages_latest.libclang.lib ];
+	shellHook = ''
+      rustup component add rust-analyzer
+      rustup component add rust-src # Needed for compiling to a custom target
+      export PATH=$PATH:''${CARGO_HOME:-~/.cargo}/bin
+      export PATH=$PATH:''${RUSTUP_HOME:-~/.rustup}/toolchains/nightly-x86_64-unknown-linux-gnu/bin/
+      export PATH="$PATH:$PWD/opt/bin"
+      '';
+    # Add glibc, clang, glib, and other headers to bindgen search path
+    BINDGEN_EXTRA_CLANG_ARGS =
+    # Includes normal include path
+    (builtins.map (a: ''-I"${a}/include"'') [
+      # add dev libraries here (e.g. pkgs.libvmi.dev)
+      pkgs.glibc.dev
+    ])
+    # Includes with special directory paths
+    ++ [
+      ''-I"${pkgs.llvmPackages_latest.libclang.lib}/lib/clang/${pkgs.llvmPackages_latest.libclang.version}/include"''
+      ''-I"${pkgs.glib.dev}/include/glib-2.0"''
+      ''-I${pkgs.glib.out}/lib/glib-2.0/include/''
+    ];
+}
+```
+
+# Bootstrap assembly
+To boot the operating system you need a bootloader. For this project I will just be using grub. But to use grub, grub needs to know how to boot your OS. To tell this to grub you need to have a header in your binary file. In order to achieve this I made an assembly file named `boot.s` containing this:
+```asm
+/* Declare constants for the multiboot header. */
+.set ALIGN,    1<<0             /* align loaded modules on page boundaries */
+.set MEMINFO,  1<<1             /* provide memory map */
+.set FLAGS,    ALIGN | MEMINFO  /* this is the Multiboot 'flag' field */
+.set MAGIC,    0x1BADB002       /* 'magic number' lets bootloader find the header */
+.set CHECKSUM, -(MAGIC + FLAGS) /* checksum of above, to prove we are multiboot */
+
+/*
+Declare a multiboot header that marks the program as a kernel. These are magic
+values that are documented in the multiboot standard. The bootloader will
+search for this signature in the first 8 KiB of the kernel file, aligned at a
+32-bit boundary. The signature is in its own section so the header can be
+forced to be within the first 8 KiB of the kernel file.
+*/
+.section .multiboot
+.align 4
+.long MAGIC
+.long FLAGS
+.long CHECKSUM
+
+/*
+The multiboot standard does not define the value of the stack pointer register
+(esp) and it is up to the kernel to provide a stack. This allocates room for a
+small stack by creating a symbol at the bottom of it, then allocating 16384
+bytes for it, and finally creating a symbol at the top. The stack grows
+downwards on x86. The stack is in its own section so it can be marked nobits,
+which means the kernel file is smaller because it does not contain an
+uninitialized stack. The stack on x86 must be 16-byte aligned according to the
+System V ABI standard and de-facto extensions. The compiler will assume the
+stack is properly aligned and failure to align the stack will result in
+undefined behavior.
+*/
+.section .bss
+.align 16
+stack_bottom:
+.skip 16384 # 16 KiB
+stack_top:
+
+/*
+The linker script specifies _start as the entry point to the kernel and the
+bootloader will jump to this position once the kernel has been loaded. It
+doesn't make sense to return from this function as the bootloader is gone.
+*/
+.section .text
+.global _start
+.type _start, @function
+_start:
+	/*
+	The bootloader has loaded us into 32-bit protected mode on a x86
+	machine. Interrupts are disabled. Paging is disabled. The processor
+	state is as defined in the multiboot standard. The kernel has full
+	control of the CPU. The kernel can only make use of hardware features
+	and any code it provides as part of itself. There's no printf
+	function, unless the kernel provides its own <stdio.h> header and a
+	printf implementation. There are no security restrictions, no
+	safeguards, no debugging mechanisms, only what the kernel provides
+	itself. It has absolute and complete power over the
+	machine.
+	*/
+
+	/*
+	To set up a stack, we set the esp register to point to the top of the
+	stack (as it grows downwards on x86 systems). This is necessarily done
+	in assembly as languages such as C cannot function without a stack.
+	*/
+	mov $stack_top, %esp
+
+	/*
+	This is a good place to initialize crucial processor state before the
+	high-level kernel is entered. It's best to minimize the early
+	environment where crucial features are offline. Note that the
+	processor is not fully initialized yet: Features such as floating
+	point instructions and instruction set extensions are not initialized
+	yet. The GDT should be loaded here. Paging should be enabled here.
+	C++ features such as global constructors and exceptions will require
+	runtime support to work as well.
+	*/
+
+	/*
+	Enter the high-level kernel. The ABI requires the stack is 16-byte
+	aligned at the time of the call instruction (which afterwards pushes
+	the return pointer of size 4 bytes). The stack was originally 16-byte
+	aligned above and we've pushed a multiple of 16 bytes to the
+	stack since (pushed 0 bytes so far), so the alignment has thus been
+	preserved and the call is well defined.
+	*/
+	call kernel_main
+
+	/*
+	If the system has nothing more to do, put the computer into an
+	infinite loop. To do that:
+	1) Disable interrupts with cli (clear interrupt enable in eflags).
+	   They are already disabled by the bootloader, so this is not needed.
+	   Mind that you might later enable interrupts and return from
+	   kernel_main (which is sort of nonsensical to do).
+	2) Wait for the next interrupt to arrive with hlt (halt instruction).
+	   Since they are disabled, this will lock up the computer.
+	3) Jump to the hlt instruction if it ever wakes up due to a
+	   non-maskable interrupt occurring or due to system management mode.
+	*/
+	cli
+1:	hlt
+	jmp 1b
+
+/*
+Set the size of the _start symbol to the current location '.' minus its start.
+This is useful when debugging or when you implement call tracing.
+*/
+.size _start, . - _start
+```
+This file creates a multiboot header and calls `kernel_main`.
+
+To assemble this I used the GNU assembler we compiled earlier:
+
+`i686-elf-as -o boot.o boot.s`
+
+# Linking
+## What is it?
+In order to combine `boot.s` and the kernel we need to do something called "linking". This will combine all the object files into a raw binary. An object file is a like a half done executable. It will contain references in ascii to for example `printf`. This can't be ran directly, because it doesn't know where `printf` is. When you link the object file, it combines your object file with `stdio`, which contains `printf`.
+
+## For an operating system
+I have to combine `boot.s` and the kernel in a specific way to preserve the multiboot header. To do this I can create a *linker script* that tells the linker how to link the object files. To do this I created a file called `linker.ld` in the repository root, which contains this:
+```linkerscript
+/* The bootloader will look at this image and start execution at the symbol
+   designated as the entry point. */
+ENTRY(_start)
+ 
+/* Tell where the various sections of the object files will be put in the final
+   kernel image. */
+SECTIONS
+{
+	/* Start offset */
+	. = 2M;
+ 
+	/* First put the multiboot header, as it is required to be put very early
+	   in the image or the bootloader won't recognize the file format.
+	   Next we'll put the .text section. */
+	.text BLOCK(4K) : ALIGN(4K)
+	{
+		*(.multiboot)
+		*(.text)
+	}
+ 
+	/* Read-only data. */
+	.rodata BLOCK(4K) : ALIGN(4K)
+	{
+		*(.rodata)
+	}
+ 
+	/* Read-write data (initialized) */
+	.data BLOCK(4K) : ALIGN(4K)
+	{
+		*(.data)
+	}
+ 
+	/* Read-write data (uninitialized) and stack */
+	.bss BLOCK(4K) : ALIGN(4K)
+	{
+		*(COMMON)
+		*(.bss)
+	}
+ 
+	/* The compiler may produce other sections, by default it will put them in
+	   a segment with the same name. Simply add stuff here as needed. */
+}
+
+```
+I specified that I want to use this script in `i686-bare-metal.json`.
+
+# Kernel
+The last thing that `boot.s` does is that it calls `kernel_main`. This is defined in a rust file. To setup the rust project I used `cargo new kernel`. This creates an (not entirely) empty rust project called `kernel`. 
+
+## Target
+By default rust will compile to x86_64-unknown-linux-gnu, but to make it compile to x86 without an OS and with our own linker script I needed to define a custom target. In `kernel/i686-bare-metal.json` I put this
+```json
+{
+  "llvm-target": "i686-unknown-none",
+  "data-layout": "e-m:e-p:32:32-p270:32:32-p271:32:32-p272:64:64-i128:128-f64:32:64-f80:32-n8:16:32-S128",
+  "arch": "x86",
+  "target-endian": "little",
+  "target-pointer-width": "32",
+  "target-c-int-width": "32",
+  "os": "none",
+  "executables": true,
+  "linker-flavor": "gcc",
+  "linker": "i686-elf-gcc",
+  "panic-strategy": "abort",
+  "disable-redzone": true,
+  "features": "-sse,+soft-float",
+  "dynamic-linking": false,
+  "relocation-model": "pic",
+  "code-model": "kernel",
+  "exe-suffix": ".elf",
+  "has-rpath": false,
+  "no-default-libraries": true,
+  "position-independent-executables": false,
+  "pre-link-args": {
+    "gcc": ["-T", "../linker.ld", "-ffreestanding", "-nostdlib", "-lgcc", "../build/boot.o"]
+  }
+}
+```
+This tells the compiler to compile to 32-bit x86:
+```json
+"llvm-target": "i686-unknown-none",
+"arch": "x86",
+"target-pointer-width": "32",
+"target-c-int-width": "32",
+```
+To use gcc for linking:
+```json
+"linker-flavor": "gcc", # Tells the compiler that we're using gcc
+"linker": "i686-elf-gcc", # Tells the compiler what gcc executable we want to use
+```
+And this tells rust to link this with `boot.s`, without a standard library, freestanding and using my build script `../../linker.ld`.
+
+To use this custom target I needed to create a cargo configuration. To do this I wrote this in `kernel/.cargo/config.toml`
+```toml
+[build]
+target = "i686-unknown-bare.json" # Use the custom target
+
+[unstable]
+build-std-features = ["compiler-builtins-mem"] # To use a custom target, I need to manually compile the standard library.
+build-std = ["core", "compiler_builtins"]
+```
+
+## Code
+Just to test the kernel I put this in `kernel/src/main.rs`
+```rust
+#![no_std] // Don't compile with std
+#![no_main] // Don't compile with a main function
+
+#[no_mangle]
+fn kernel_main() {
+    let vga_buffer = 0xb8000 as *mut u8; // Make a pointer to address 0xB8000
+
+    let string: &[u8] = b":3"; // Define a string to print
+    for (i, &byte) in string.iter().enumerate() { // For every character in the string
+        unsafe {
+            *vga_buffer.offset(i as isize * 2) = byte; // Print the character
+            *vga_buffer.offset(i as isize * 2 + 1) = 0xf; // Set the color to white
+        }
+    }
+
+
+    loop {} // End of program
+}
+ 
+#[panic_handler]
+fn panic(_info: &core::panic::PanicInfo) -> ! {
+    loop {}
+}
+```
+
+# Building the kernel
+To build the kernel I just run `cargo build` in the `kernel` directory. This will produce a binary called `kernel/target/i686-bare-metal/debug/kernel.elf`. I now have a multiboot enabled kernel :)
+
+# Grub
+Now to turn the kernel into a ISO file with a bootloader, I used grub. To configure grub I needed to create a directory for it. I made `build/isodir/boot/grub/grub.cfg` containing this:
+```
+menuentry "geos" {
+	multiboot /boot/geos.bin
+}
+```
+Then I copied `kernel/target/i686-bare-metal/debug/kernel.elf` to `isodir/boot/geos.bin`. Then I ran `grub-mkrescue -o build/geos.iso build/isodir` to make an ISO containing my OS and grub. Yippee
+
+# File structure
+```
+geos/
+| opt/
+| | gcc and binutils binaries and lib.
+| kernel/
+| | rust project
+| gcc/
+| | gcc source code
+| binutils
+| | binutils source code
+```
+

log/2024-03-27.md

@@ -0,0 +1,189 @@
+# VGA text
+Hello. Today I succesfully made a `println!` macro.
+
+## std
+To following conventions I decided to make a `std` library. To do this I made a workspace in `kernel/`.
+
+`kernel/Cargo.toml`
+```toml
+[package]
+name = "kernel"
+version = "0.1.0"
+edition = "2021"
+
+[workspace]
+members = ["std"]
+
+[dependencies]
+std = { path = "std" }
+```
+
+## lib.rs
+To not have one big spaghetti file I separated out all the individal modules into different files.
+`kernel/std/src/lib.rs`
+```rust
+#![no_std]
+
+pub mod vga_buffer;
+```
+
+## vga_buffer.rs
+First step for a VGA text driver is to be able to represent data.
+
+`kernel/std/src/lib.rs`
+```rust
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+#[repr(u8)]
+pub enum Color {
+    Black = 0,
+    Blue = 1,
+    Green = 2,
+    Cyan = 3,
+    Red = 4,
+    Magenta = 5,
+    Brown = 6,
+    LightGray = 7,
+    DarkGray = 8,
+    LightBlue = 9,
+    LightGreen = 10,
+    LightCyan = 11,
+    LightRed = 12,
+    Pink = 13,
+    Yellow = 14,
+    White = 15,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+#[repr(transparent)] // Store this as a u8
+pub struct ColorCode(u8);
+
+impl ColorCode {
+    pub fn new(foreground: Color, background: Color) -> ColorCode {
+        ColorCode((background as u8) << 4 | (foreground as u8))
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
+#[repr(C)] // Tells rust to store this like a struct in C, i.e. store this as 2 bytes
+struct ScreenChar {
+    ascii_character: u8,
+    color_code: ColorCode,
+}
+
+const BUFFER_HEIGHT: usize = 25;
+const BUFFER_WIDTH: usize = 80;
+
+#[repr(transparent)]
+struct Buffer {
+    chars: [[ScreenChar; BUFFER_WIDTH]; BUFFER_HEIGHT],
+}
+```
+
+Now I can represent the VGA text buffer. To write to this I want to make a writer struct that implements `fmt::Write`.
+```rust
+pub struct Writer {
+    col: usize,
+    row: usize,
+    buffer: &'static mut Buffer,
+}
+
+impl Writer {
+    pub fn write_byte(&mut self, byte: u8) {
+        self.write_byte_color(byte, ColorCode::new(Color::White, Color::Black));
+    }
+
+    pub fn write_byte_color(&mut self, byte: u8, color: ColorCode) {
+        match byte {
+            b'\n' => self.new_line(),
+            byte => {
+                if self.col >= BUFFER_WIDTH {
+                    self.new_line();
+                }
+
+                let row = self.row;
+                let col = self.col;
+
+                let color_code = color;
+                self.buffer.chars[row][col] = ScreenChar {
+                    ascii_character: byte,
+                    color_code,
+                };
+                self.col += 1;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn write_string(&mut self, s: &str) {
+        self.write_string_color(s, ColorCode::new(Color::White, Color::Black));
+    }
+
+    pub fn write_string_color(&mut self, s: &str, color: ColorCode) {
+        for char in s.bytes() {
+            match char {
+                0x20..=0x7e | b'\n' => self.write_byte_color(char, color), // Ascii Character
+                _ => self.write_byte(0xfe), // Non ascii
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn new_line(&mut self) {
+        self.row += 1;
+        self.col = 0;
+    }
+}
+
+impl fmt::Write for Writer {
+    fn write_str(&mut self, s: &str) -> fmt::Result {
+        self.write_string(s);
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+```
+
+The problem now becomes that I can create a `Writer` but I don't have a global position, so it will just overwrite what I wrote last time. To solve this I can use a static variable. But a static variable won't be mutable. This can be solved with `Mutex` in the spin crate and `lazy_static`.
+
+`kernel/std/Cargo.toml`
+```toml
+[package]
+name = "std"
+version = "0.1.0"
+edition = "2021"
+
+[dependencies]
+lazy_static = { version = "1.4.0", features = ["spin_no_std"] }
+spin = "0.9.8"
+```
+
+and to make a static variable I wrote (copied from [here](https://os.phil-opp.com/vga-text-mode/)) this
+```rust
+lazy_static! {
+    pub static ref WRITER: Mutex<Writer> = Mutex::new(Writer {
+        col: 0,
+        row: 0,
+        buffer: unsafe { &mut *(0xB8000 as *mut Buffer) },
+    });
+}
+```
+in `kernel/std/src/vga_buffer.rs`.
+
+Last step is just to add a function and 2 macros
+```rust
+#[doc(hidden)]
+pub fn _print(args: fmt::Arguments) {
+    WRITER.lock().write_fmt(args).unwrap()
+}
+
+#[macro_export]
+macro_rules! print {
+    ($($arg:tt)*) => ($crate::vga_buffer::_print(format_args!($($arg)*)));
+}
+
+#[macro_export]
+macro_rules! println {
+    () => ($crate::print!("\n"));
+    ($($arg:tt)*) => ($crate::print!("{}\n", format_args!($($arg)*)));
+}
+```
+
+Huge thanks to @phil-opp for [os.phil-opp.com](https://os.phil-opp.com/)
+

rust-toolchain

@@ -1 +0,0 @@
-nightly

shell.nix

@@ -1,25 +1,31 @@
 { pkgs ? import <nixpkgs> {} }:
+
 pkgs.mkShell rec {
 	buildInputs = with pkgs; [
       clang
       llvmPackages_17.bintools
       rustup
 	  qemu
+      grub2
+      libisoburn
+      bison
+      flex
+      gmp
+      libmpc
+      mpfr
+      texinfo
+      isl
     ];
-    RUSTC_VERSION = pkgs.lib.readFile ./rust-toolchain;
-    # https://github.com/rust-lang/rust-bindgen#environment-variables
+    RUSTC_VERSION = "nightly"; # Required for some experimental cargo features
+    hardeningDisable = [ "all" ]; # Required to compile gcc
     LIBCLANG_PATH = pkgs.lib.makeLibraryPath [ pkgs.llvmPackages_latest.libclang.lib ];
 	shellHook = ''
-	  rustup component add llvm-tools-preview
-	  rustup component add rust-analyzer
-	  rustup target add x86_64-unknown-none
+      rustup component add rust-analyzer
+      rustup component add rust-src # Needed for compiling to a custom target
       export PATH=$PATH:''${CARGO_HOME:-~/.cargo}/bin
-      export PATH=$PATH:''${RUSTUP_HOME:-~/.rustup}/toolchains/$RUSTC_VERSION-x86_64-unknown-linux-gnu/bin/
+      export PATH=$PATH:''${RUSTUP_HOME:-~/.rustup}/toolchains/nightly-x86_64-unknown-linux-gnu/bin/
+      export PATH="$PATH:$PWD/opt/bin"
       '';
-    # Add precompiled library to rustc search path
-    RUSTFLAGS = (builtins.map (a: ''-L ${a}/lib'') [
-      # add libraries here (e.g. pkgs.libvmi)
-    ]);
     # Add glibc, clang, glib, and other headers to bindgen search path
     BINDGEN_EXTRA_CLANG_ARGS = 
     # Includes normal include path